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Introduction: A New Way to Look Into the Cosmic Unknown
The James Webb Space Telescope has already transformed modern astronomy with its powerful infrared vision, revealing ancient galaxies, hidden stellar nurseries, distant exoplanets, and complex structures that were once beyond the reach of space-based observatories. Yet one of Webb’s most remarkable capabilities is not simply the size of its famous gold-coated mirror. It is the telescope’s ability to use specialized observing techniques that extract extraordinary detail from light.
A new series of observations demonstrates how Webb’s aperture masking interferometry, or AMI, mode is helping astronomers study some of the universe’s most difficult targets with exceptional angular resolution. By transforming parts of Webb’s primary mirror into a coordinated network of smaller observing elements, researchers can recover fine details that would otherwise remain blurred or hidden.
Using this technique, scientific teams have investigated three dramatically different cosmic environments: dust created by colliding winds around a massive binary star system, young giant planets still gathering material inside a protoplanetary disk, and volcanic activity across the surface of Jupiter’s moon Io.
These discoveries show that Webb is not only a powerful telescope—it is also a flexible scientific laboratory. When advanced instrumentation is combined with computational modeling, interferometry, and artificial intelligence, astronomers can uncover information that is invisible to conventional imaging methods.
Original Summary: Three Cosmic Mysteries Revealed
The original research highlights how Webb’s Near Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrograph, known as NIRISS, uses aperture masking interferometry to examine objects at extremely fine angular scales.
The first study focused on Wolf-Rayet 137, a massive binary star system where powerful stellar winds collide and produce dust. Instead of finding the expected pinwheel-shaped structure, researchers discovered an unusual, nearly straight dust pattern.
The second study examined PDS 70, a young star surrounded by a planet-forming disk. Webb measured infrared light from two young giant planets and detected excess emission that may be linked to material surrounding the planets.
The third study observed Io, Jupiter’s intensely volcanic moon. Because Io’s surface is complex and difficult to reconstruct using conventional interferometric techniques, researchers used neural networks to recover detailed information about volcanic hot spots and large-scale surface structures.
Together, the studies demonstrate that AMI can expand Webb’s scientific reach and help shape the instruments of future space observatories.
How Webb Turns One Giant Mirror Into a Network of Smaller Telescopes
The Power Behind Webb’s Segmented Golden Mirror
Webb’s primary mirror is one of the most recognizable engineering achievements in modern space science. Its large, segmented surface is coated with a thin layer of gold, allowing it to efficiently reflect infrared light.
The telescope’s mirror has delivered image quality beyond many expectations established before launch. However, even a highly advanced mirror faces physical limits when observing extremely small or closely packed structures.
The apparent sharpness of a telescope is limited by diffraction. When light passes through an aperture, it spreads into patterns that can blur nearby objects together. This means that two closely separated sources may appear as one, even when the telescope is extremely powerful.
Aperture masking interferometry provides a creative way to work around part of this challenge.
Aperture Masking Interferometry: Turning Light Into a Precision Measurement
AMI places a specially designed mask containing several small openings in the telescope’s light path. Instead of allowing light to pass through the entire mirror in a conventional way, the mask selects specific portions of the telescope’s aperture.
The selected sections behave like a carefully arranged collection of smaller telescopes. Their light combines to produce interference patterns that contain detailed information about the target.
Scientists then analyze those patterns to determine how light is distributed across extremely small angular scales.
The technique does not simply produce a sharper photograph. It converts subtle differences in light into measurements that can reveal structures difficult to separate through ordinary imaging.
Why Interferometry Matters for Modern Astronomy
Interferometry has been used for decades by ground-based observatories and radio telescope arrays. The technique allows multiple observations to work together as if they were part of a much larger instrument.
Webb brings this concept into a highly stable space environment.
Unlike Earth-based telescopes, Webb does not have to observe through a constantly changing atmosphere. Atmospheric turbulence can distort incoming light and reduce image quality, especially at fine angular scales.
Operating in space gives Webb a stable platform for precise infrared interferometric measurements.
This combination of a large telescope, advanced instrumentation, and computational reconstruction creates new opportunities for studying faint dust, young planets, stellar environments, and planetary surfaces.
Wolf-Rayet 137: A Massive Stellar System With an Unexpected Dust Pattern
A Violent Partnership Between Two Massive Stars
Wolf-Rayet 137, also known as WR 137, is a massive binary system containing two powerful stars orbiting one another.
One member is a Wolf-Rayet star, an evolved and highly luminous type of massive star known for producing intense stellar winds. The star has a mass of approximately ten times that of the Sun.
Its companion is another massive star with a mass estimated at roughly seventeen times that of the Sun.
The two stars complete an orbit around each other approximately every 13.1 years.
Their interaction creates an environment far more energetic than anything found in the Solar System.
Where Stellar Winds Collide, Dust Can Be Born
Both stars release powerful streams of gas into space. When these stellar winds collide, the gas becomes compressed.
Under suitable conditions, parts of the material can cool enough for tiny dust particles to form.
The DustERS research team used Webb’s AMI mode to examine faint dust structures within approximately 100 to 200 astronomical units of the binary system.
For comparison, Neptune orbits the Sun at an average distance of nearly 30 astronomical units.
The observations therefore focused on a relatively compact region surrounding two extraordinarily energetic stars.
The Surprise: A Straight Dust Structure Instead of a Pinwheel
Researchers expected the dust around WR 137 to form a pinwheel-like pattern.
Such structures can emerge when orbiting stars continuously produce dust while their changing positions create spiral-shaped trails.
Instead, Webb revealed a structure that appeared unusually linear—almost like a straight line.
This unexpected result suggests that the stellar winds may be interacting in a more complicated way than existing models predicted.
The geometry of the winds, the orbital motion of the stars, changes in dust production, or variations in the surrounding environment may all influence the observed shape.
The discovery demonstrates why direct observation is essential. Even strong theoretical expectations can be challenged when a more powerful instrument reveals previously hidden details.
Computer Models Transform Interferometric Data Into Clearer Images
The research team used advanced computer simulations to reproduce the physical conditions around WR 137.
These models helped convert the interferometric measurements into reconstructed images of the star system and its surrounding dust.
The work also supported the development of new tools for interpreting future AMI observations.
One of the researchers, Joel Sánchez Bermúdez, developed SAMPip, a Python-based software framework designed to analyze aperture masking interferometry data.
The ability to combine telescope observations with specialized computational tools is becoming increasingly important across astronomy.
Modern discoveries often emerge not only from collecting more light, but also from extracting more information from the light already collected.
Why Stellar Dust Matters to the Evolution of the Universe
Dust may appear insignificant, but it plays a major role in cosmic evolution.
Dust grains can contain elements produced and released by stars. These particles contribute to the chemical enrichment of galaxies and can become part of future stellar systems.
Over time, enriched material may be incorporated into new stars, planets, moons, and other objects.
Studying dust around massive stars therefore helps researchers understand how the universe develops increasingly complex chemical environments.
The unusual structure around WR 137 may offer new clues about how massive stars manufacture and distribute material into interstellar space.
PDS 70: Watching Giant Planets Grow Inside a Young Planetary System
A Young Star Surrounded by a Planet-Forming Disk
PDS 70 is a young, Sun-like star located approximately 370 light-years from Earth.
The system is estimated to be around five million years old, making it extremely young compared with the Solar System, which is more than 4.5 billion years old.
PDS 70 is surrounded by a protoplanetary disk composed mostly of gas, with a smaller amount of dust.
This disk contains material left over from the formation of the star.
As the disk rotates, gravity and angular momentum shape it into a flattened structure.
Within this environment, planets can gather material and grow.
Two Young Giant Worlds Still Under Construction
The PDS 70 system contains two directly imaged giant planets: PDS 70 b and PDS 70 c.
These planets may resemble a very young version of Jupiter during the early history of the Solar System.
However, they orbit farther from their host star than Jupiter orbits the Sun.
Their young age makes them especially valuable to astronomers.
Most known exoplanets are observed after they have already formed. PDS 70 b and c provide a rare opportunity to study planets while they are still actively interacting with the material around them.
Webb Detects Infrared Light Beyond the Planets’ Atmospheres
Using NIRISS aperture masking interferometry, researchers measured the brightness of PDS 70 b and c at a wavelength of 4.8 microns.
This was the first precise measurement of both planets at that wavelength using Webb.
Infrared observations are particularly useful because warm material can emit strongly at these wavelengths.
The observations revealed more infrared emission than researchers expected from the planetary atmospheres alone.
The excess light is consistent with material surrounding the planets.
Circumplanetary Disks May Be Feeding the Young Worlds
The additional emission may originate from dust and gas near the planets.
Such material could be associated with circumplanetary disks—smaller disks surrounding young planets.
These structures may act as reservoirs that supply material to growing planets.
They may also play a role in the formation of moons.
The observations suggest that some surrounding material may have temperatures near minus 58 degrees Fahrenheit, or minus 50 degrees Celsius.
Future observations at nearby infrared wavelengths could help scientists determine the temperature, distribution, and location of this dust more accurately.
Why PDS 70 Could Help Explain the Birth of Jupiter
Astronomers cannot travel back in time to observe Jupiter during its formation.
However, young planetary systems such as PDS 70 may provide natural examples of similar processes.
By studying how gas and dust move around young giant planets, scientists may learn more about how Jupiter and Saturn formed.
The system could also reveal why planets develop different masses, atmospheric compositions, and moon systems.
PDS 70 is therefore more than a distant collection of planets. It may be a living laboratory for understanding the earliest stages of planetary evolution.
Io: Webb Uses Neural Networks to Study Jupiter’s Volcanic Moon
The Most Volcanically Active World in the Solar System
Io is one of Jupiter’s largest moons and the most volcanically active world known in the Solar System.
Its extreme activity is driven largely by gravitational interactions with Jupiter and other nearby moons.
As Io moves through its orbit, gravitational forces repeatedly stretch and compress its interior.
This process generates heat that powers widespread volcanic activity.
The moon’s surface is continuously reshaped by lava flows, volcanic deposits, sulfur compounds, and changing thermal features.
Why Io Is Difficult to Reconstruct With Traditional Interferometry
Io is not a simple point-like object.
Its surface contains many complex structures, and its apparent size during the Webb observations made conventional interferometric reconstruction methods difficult to apply.
Standard techniques are often designed for simpler targets, such as stars or compact objects.
Io contains overlapping volcanic regions, extended thermal emission, and large-scale surface features.
To recover meaningful images from Webb’s AMI measurements, researchers needed a new computational approach.
Neural Networks Help Recover Hidden Surface Details
The research team used neural networks to analyze the NIRISS AMI data.
Neural networks are computational systems inspired by some aspects of biological learning.
They can identify complicated patterns in large datasets and generate useful interpretations from subtle signals.
In this case, the neural-network approach helped reconstruct images of Io’s surface.
The technique enabled researchers to identify and characterize volcanic hot spots across the moon.
Five Images Reveal Changing Volcanic Activity
Webb collected five images over approximately 30 minutes.
The observations showed different hot spots associated with volcanic activity across Io’s disk.
The researchers identified dominant structures at scales of approximately 225 miles, or 362 kilometers.
These features may correspond to emission regions associated with individual volcanoes.
Larger structures measuring around 360 miles, or 580 kilometers, may be connected to sulfur dioxide frost previously observed on the moon.
Ground-Based Observations Support the New Method
The findings were consistent with complementary observations made using the Keck II telescope on Earth.
This agreement provides important support for the neural-network reconstruction method.
When independent instruments produce compatible results, confidence in the interpretation increases.
The study demonstrates how artificial intelligence can become a valuable scientific tool when it is used alongside physical models, observational data, and independent validation.
AI does not replace astronomy. Instead, it can help researchers uncover patterns that would be difficult to recover using traditional methods alone.
Deep Analysis: Webb’s AMI Mode Is Changing the Meaning of Telescope Resolution
Resolution Is No Longer Defined Only by Mirror Size
For much of astronomical history, larger mirrors were the primary path toward sharper observations.
A larger mirror collects more light and can improve angular resolution.
Webb demonstrates that advanced observing techniques can further extend the scientific value of a large telescope.
AMI adds another layer of capability by using selected portions of the telescope’s aperture to generate measurable interference patterns.
This means that the future of astronomy may depend not only on building larger telescopes, but also on developing smarter ways to use them.
Data Processing Has Become Part of the Telescope
Modern observatories are no longer defined only by their mirrors and detectors.
Software, simulation systems, image reconstruction methods, and machine-learning models are now essential components of scientific discovery.
The telescope gathers photons, but algorithms transform those photons into scientific information.
In the WR 137 study, computer models helped explain an unexpected dust structure.
In the Io study, neural networks enabled the reconstruction of complex surface features.
In the PDS 70 study, precision infrared measurements helped separate planetary emission from surrounding material.
The scientific instrument therefore extends beyond the spacecraft itself.
Interferometric Data Requires Specialized Analysis
AMI observations are not interpreted in the same way as ordinary images.
Researchers often work with quantities such as visibility amplitudes, closure phases, and calibrated interferometric observables.
These measurements can reveal asymmetries, faint companions, dust structures, and small-scale emission.
A simplified Python-style workflow for processing AMI data may look like this:
Create a scientific Python environment
python -m venv webb-ami
Activate the environment on Linux or macOS
source webb-ami/bin/activate
Install common scientific tools
pip install numpy scipy astropy matplotlib
Install image-processing and machine-learning tools
pip install scikit-image scikit-learn
A simplified analysis script could begin like this:
from astropy.io import fits import numpy as np import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
Load a calibrated observation
data = fits.getdata("webb_ami_calibrated.fits")
Remove invalid values
clean_data = np.nan_to_num(data)
Normalize the signal
normalized = clean_data / np.max(clean_data)
Display the processed observation
plt.imshow(normalized, origin=lower)
plt.colorbar(label=Normalized infrared signal)
plt.title(Processed Webb AMI Observation)
plt.show()
Real AMI analysis is considerably more complex and requires instrument calibration, reference observations, interferometric modeling, and careful treatment of uncertainties.
The example illustrates the broader scientific principle: modern astronomy increasingly depends on the integration of hardware and software.
Artificial Intelligence Must Be Tested, Not Simply Trusted
The use of neural networks in astronomy creates powerful opportunities, but it also introduces challenges.
AI models can identify patterns, reconstruct images, and accelerate analysis.
However, a model can also generate misleading structures if its training data, assumptions, or validation methods are weak.
Scientific confidence requires more than visually impressive results.
Researchers must compare AI-generated reconstructions with physical models, independent observations, and known properties of the target.
The agreement between the Webb results and observations from Keck II is therefore significant.
It shows that the neural-network method produced results compatible with another major observatory.
Webb’s Success Could Influence Future Telescope Design
Space telescopes face practical limits.
Launching larger mirrors increases engineering complexity, cost, mass, and risk.
New observing modes may provide another route toward improved scientific performance.
Instead of relying entirely on larger structures, future missions may use advanced masks, interferometric systems, precision wavefront control, and computational reconstruction.
The result could be more capable observatories without requiring unlimited increases in telescope size.
The Habitable Worlds Observatory Could Benefit From These Lessons
NASA’s proposed Habitable Worlds Observatory is expected to focus on studying potentially habitable planets beyond the Solar System.
Directly imaging Earth-like planets is extremely difficult because a planet is faint and located close to a much brighter star.
Advanced optical techniques will be essential for separating planetary light from stellar glare.
The lessons learned from Webb’s AMI observations may help guide the development of future high-contrast imaging systems.
The ability to detect faint structures near bright objects is already demonstrated by the PDS 70 observations.
Future instruments may build on these capabilities to study smaller and more Earth-like worlds.
What Undercode Say:
A Telescope’s Greatest Upgrade May Be the Way It Thinks
Webb’s latest AMI results show that astronomical progress is no longer driven only by larger mirrors.
The next breakthrough may come from extracting more information from the same light.
Interferometry Is Expanding Webb Beyond Conventional Imaging
AMI allows Webb to study fine structures that ordinary observations may struggle to resolve.
This makes the telescope more flexible and scientifically valuable.
The WR 137 Discovery Is Important Because It Was Unexpected
Scientists expected a pinwheel-shaped dust pattern.
Webb instead revealed a nearly linear structure.
Unexpected observations are often where the most valuable scientific questions begin.
Massive Stars Continue to Shape the Chemical Universe
The dust created around WR 137 may contribute to the material used by future generations of stars and planets.
Studying this process helps explain how complex cosmic environments develop.
PDS 70 Offers a Rare View of Planetary Growth
Most exoplanets are observed after their formation is largely complete.
PDS 70 b and c are still interacting with their surrounding material.
This gives astronomers an opportunity to study planetary evolution in real time.
Circumplanetary Disks May Connect Planet Formation and Moon Formation
Material surrounding young planets may influence how moons develop.
Future observations could help explain the origins of large satellite systems.
Io Demonstrates the Power of AI-Assisted Astronomy
Neural networks helped researchers reconstruct complex structures that traditional methods could not easily recover.
This is a strong example of AI supporting scientific discovery.
AI Should Remain Connected to Physical Evidence
Machine learning can accelerate research.
However, scientific conclusions must remain grounded in observations and validated models.
Independent Confirmation Is Essential
The agreement between Webb and Keck II observations strengthens confidence in the reconstruction method.
Cross-validation should remain a core requirement for AI-assisted science.
Advanced Algorithms Are Becoming Scientific Instruments
Software is no longer only a tool used after observations.
It is becoming part of the observation process itself.
Future Astronomers Will Need Both Physics and Computing Skills
Astronomy increasingly requires knowledge of data science, simulation, machine learning, and software development.
The future researcher may spend as much time analyzing data as operating a telescope.
Webb’s Legacy May Extend Beyond Its Images
The telescope is generating new techniques that could influence future missions.
Its impact may therefore continue long after its primary observations are completed.
High Resolution Does Not Always Require a Larger Telescope
Creative optical methods can improve scientific performance without dramatically increasing physical size.
This could reduce engineering barriers for future observatories.
The Search for Habitable Worlds Will Depend on Precision
Earth-like planets are faint and difficult to separate from their stars.
Techniques developed through Webb research may help overcome this challenge.
AMI Could Become a Model for Future Instrument Design
Specialized observing modes may become standard components of advanced telescopes.
Future missions may include multiple precision techniques rather than relying on one imaging method.
The Universe Is More Complex Than Our Models
WR 137 demonstrates that even well-established expectations can be challenged.
Better observations often reveal that nature is more complicated than theoretical assumptions.
Infrared Astronomy Continues to Reveal Hidden Environments
Infrared light allows astronomers to study cool dust, young planets, and energetic processes.
Webb is opening regions of the universe that visible-light telescopes cannot examine as effectively.
Young Planetary Systems May Explain Our Own Origins
PDS 70 may provide clues about how Jupiter formed.
Understanding distant systems can therefore improve knowledge of the Solar System.
Io Remains a Natural Laboratory for Extreme Geology
Its volcanic activity offers insights into tidal heating and planetary evolution.
Webb adds a new perspective to decades of Solar System research.
Data Quality Will Determine the Future of Scientific AI
More powerful algorithms cannot compensate for poor observations.
High-quality measurements remain the foundation of reliable discoveries.
Open Scientific Software Will Become Increasingly Important
Tools such as SAMPip help researchers analyze complex data.
Shared software can accelerate scientific collaboration and reproducibility.
Computational Astronomy Is Becoming More Accessible
Python-based tools allow students and researchers to experiment with advanced data-analysis methods.
This may broaden participation in space science.
Webb Is Demonstrating the Value of International Collaboration
The research includes scientists and institutions from multiple countries.
Large scientific missions achieve more when knowledge and technology are shared.
The Next Major Discovery May Come From Reanalyzing Existing Data
New algorithms can reveal information that earlier methods missed.
Archived observations may therefore remain scientifically valuable for many years.
Interferometry May Help Detect Fainter Companions
Advanced techniques could improve the study of close binary stars, exoplanets, and dusty environments.
This may expand the range of objects that can be directly characterized.
Scientific Progress Often Begins With Better Questions
The linear dust structure around WR 137 creates new questions about stellar winds.
The most important result may not be the image itself, but the research it inspires.
Webb Is Helping Astronomy Move From Detection to Characterization
Finding an object is only the first step.
Researchers now want to understand its temperature, composition, structure, and evolution.
Planet Formation Is a Dynamic Process
The PDS 70 observations show that young planets are not isolated objects.
They remain connected to the disks that formed them.
Future Observations Will Add Critical Context
Additional wavelengths could reveal where the circumplanetary material is located.
Multiwavelength analysis will be essential for understanding these systems.
AI Will Likely Become Standard in Telescope Data Pipelines
As observatories generate larger datasets, automated analysis will become increasingly necessary.
Human researchers will remain essential for interpretation and validation.
Webb’s AMI Results Are a Technology Demonstration With Scientific Value
The technique is producing discoveries while also testing methods for future missions.
This dual role increases its long-term importance.
The Habitable Worlds Observatory Could Build on Webb’s Foundation
Future missions may combine advanced optics with computational reconstruction.
This could improve the search for planets capable of supporting life.
Astronomy Is Entering an Era of Hybrid Discovery
Hardware collects the signal.
Algorithms recover the structure.
Physics explains the result.
Together, these systems create a more powerful scientific process.
The Most Important Lesson Is That Innovation Can Multiply Capability
Webb’s mirror is extraordinary.
But its specialized observing modes show that innovation can make existing hardware perform in new ways.
Webb Is Not Reaching the End of Its Scientific Story
Every new observing method expands the telescope’s potential.
The most surprising discoveries may still be ahead.
✅ Webb Uses Aperture Masking Interferometry Through NIRISS
The James Webb Space Telescope includes an AMI observing capability through its Near Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrograph instrument.
The technique uses a mask to select portions of the telescope aperture and produce interferometric measurements.
This allows researchers to study fine angular structures that are difficult to resolve with conventional imaging.
✅ WR 137 Contains Two Massive Stars With Powerful Stellar Winds
The WR 137 system includes a Wolf-Rayet star and a massive companion.
Their interacting stellar winds create conditions where gas can compress, cool, and form dust.
Webb observations revealed an unusual dust structure that differed from the expected pinwheel-like pattern.
✅ PDS 70 Contains Two Young Giant Planets
PDS 70 b and PDS 70 c are among the youngest directly imaged exoplanets.
Webb measured their infrared brightness at 4.8 microns and detected emission beyond what would be expected from the planetary atmospheres alone.
The excess emission is consistent with material surrounding the young planets.
✅ Io Is the Most Volcanically Active World Known in the Solar System
Io experiences intense volcanic activity driven by tidal heating.
Webb observations identified multiple thermal hot spots associated with volcanic regions.
The neural-network reconstruction results were supported by complementary observations from the Keck II telescope.
✅ AI Was Used as a Reconstruction Tool, Not as a Replacement for Science
Neural networks helped recover complex information from interferometric observations.
The results were evaluated using observational evidence and comparisons with other data.
This demonstrates a scientifically controlled use of AI rather than relying on unverified automated output.
Prediction
(+1) Advanced Interferometry Will Become More Important in Future Space Missions
Webb’s AMI results are likely to encourage future observatories to include more specialized high-resolution observing modes.
These techniques could improve the study of faint planets, close binary stars, stellar dust, and complex planetary surfaces.
(+1) AI-Assisted Astronomy Will Expand Across Major Observatories
Neural networks and machine-learning systems will likely become common components of astronomical data pipelines.
Their role will grow as telescopes produce larger and more complex datasets.
(+1) Future Webb Observations Could Reveal More About Planetary Accretion
Additional infrared measurements of PDS 70 b and c may help determine the temperature and distribution of material surrounding the planets.
These observations could improve models of giant-planet and moon formation.
(+1) The Search for Habitable Worlds Will Benefit From Webb’s Technical Lessons
Future missions may apply similar principles of precision optics, interferometry, and computational reconstruction.
These advances could make it easier to separate faint Earth-like planets from the overwhelming brightness of their host stars.
(-1) Increasing Dependence on AI Could Create New Scientific Risks
If machine-learning systems are used without strong validation, they may introduce artificial structures or misleading interpretations.
Future research will need transparent models, independent confirmation, and careful uncertainty analysis.
Final Perspective: Webb Is Showing That the Smallest Details Can Tell the Biggest Stories
The James Webb Space Telescope continues to prove that scientific discovery is not only about looking farther into space.
It is also about looking more carefully.
Through aperture masking interferometry, Webb has revealed an unexpected dust structure around a massive stellar system, captured evidence of material surrounding young giant planets, and helped map volcanic activity across one of the Solar System’s most extreme worlds.
These observations connect stellar evolution, planetary formation, volcanic geology, advanced optics, and artificial intelligence.
They also reveal a larger truth about the future of astronomy: the next generation of discoveries will emerge from the combination of powerful instruments and intelligent analysis.
Webb’s golden mirror is opening a new window into the universe—but techniques such as AMI are helping scientists see through that window with unprecedented precision.
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